By observation what we have learnt in our lives ,we can understand what learning is .Learning can be defined as the process of acquiring a permanent changes in behaviour.There are two important points to be taken into account:
1. Learning is a process.
2. It makes a permanent changes in behaviour.
Learning is process.There are several steps in the learning process and these are highly interrelated.Therefore, the learner has to pass several steps before arriving at a permanent change in behaviour.There are several theories , which explain this process , and each theory looks at learning in different ways.You will be familiar with these theories and their differences later in this session.
As mentioned earlier , the most important aspect of learning is a permanent change in behaviour.If changes is temporary , it will not be considered as an outcome of the learning process.Change in behaviour should be permanent at least till the condition under which the learner has learnt exist.To understand what is meant by "permanent change in behaviour " , assume you are working in an organization where smoking is prohibited and that you have been punished for smoking.If you will nor smoke again in this organization , it can be said that learning has taken place.Because it is a permanent change in your behaviour under the conditions , which you have to work. Now you think that you get a new job in another organization where smoking is not prohibited , and you start smoking again. Can we say that the former condition does not apply?certainly not. Because the above condition is not applicable to the new organization.If you continue smoking in the new organization , it can be said that new learning has taken place.
Friday, July 30, 2010
Identifying the reasons for dissatisfaction and taking action for dissatisfaction
There may be a variety of causes , such as
1.Poor supervision
2.Poor working conditions
3.Lack of job security
4.inequitable compensation
5.Lack of opportunity for advancement
Since if it is not always easy to discover causes of job dissatisfaction , managers can handle non directive counseling approach.Here the supervisor can try to understand the problems of employees by talking to them politely. He should encourage the employees to diagnose the problem and suggest some solutions . This may allow the employees to reduce tension by talking about problems and enhance self esteem by allowing the develop his or her own solutions.
The supervisor may need active plan about how to deal with the problem and should have training for handling certain kinds of psychological problems.
Taking Action for Dissatisfaction
Making changes in working conditions , supervision , compensation or job design depending on the job factor responsible for employees dissatisfaction.
Transfer employees to other jobs to archive a better match between employee characteristics and job characteristic.
An attempt to change the perception or executions of dissatisfied employees.
Precautionary actions-Whenever possible , precaution should be taken to avoid unnecessary job dissatisfaction without waiting till they surface calling for early action.
1.Poor supervision
2.Poor working conditions
3.Lack of job security
4.inequitable compensation
5.Lack of opportunity for advancement
Since if it is not always easy to discover causes of job dissatisfaction , managers can handle non directive counseling approach.Here the supervisor can try to understand the problems of employees by talking to them politely. He should encourage the employees to diagnose the problem and suggest some solutions . This may allow the employees to reduce tension by talking about problems and enhance self esteem by allowing the develop his or her own solutions.
The supervisor may need active plan about how to deal with the problem and should have training for handling certain kinds of psychological problems.
Taking Action for Dissatisfaction
Making changes in working conditions , supervision , compensation or job design depending on the job factor responsible for employees dissatisfaction.
Transfer employees to other jobs to archive a better match between employee characteristics and job characteristic.
An attempt to change the perception or executions of dissatisfied employees.
Precautionary actions-Whenever possible , precaution should be taken to avoid unnecessary job dissatisfaction without waiting till they surface calling for early action.
Thursday, July 29, 2010
Consequences of job Dissatisfaction
Job dissatisfaction produces low morale among workers and low morale at work is highly undesirable.Accordingly , managers must be constantly watchful for any signs of low morale and job dissatisfaction and take corrective action as soon as possible.Some of the indicators of low morale are ,
Employee Unrest
Under this condition the employee may not attend to hi job properly.Sometimes ,he comes so frustrated that he may take to undesirable habits as excessive drinking.So it may affect the mental health and well being of the worker.If it affects a large number of workers they may resort is collective action such as go slow ,work stoppage strike and other allied group action.
Absenteeism
Less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to avoidable reasons.Management must be concerned with excessive absenteeism for it disrupts production and business operations.
Tardiness
This is also similar to absenteeism.But this is not due to some explainable reason such as getting children ready for school but only due to the fact that employees really do not care much for their work.This is indicated by excessive time spent in rest rooms , lingering in the parking lot before coming to work spending too much time on personal telephone calls.So ,they actually spend time at work but that there is not spent on useful and productive work.
Employee Turnover
The organizational units with the lowest average satisfaction levels tend to have the highest turnover rates. Turnover may be voluntary , which is initiated by the employees or it may be due to job dissatisfaction or other personal reason beyond control by the management.
Union Activity
The evidence for dissatisfaction is a major cause of unionization. In addition the employees feel that individually they are unable to influence changes that would result in the alimentation , of those factors that cause job dissatisfaction .Lower level of union activities is related to the level of job dissatisfaction and lower level of job dissatisfaction may result in grievances while higher level of job dissatisfaction may result in employee strikes.
Employee Unrest
Under this condition the employee may not attend to hi job properly.Sometimes ,he comes so frustrated that he may take to undesirable habits as excessive drinking.So it may affect the mental health and well being of the worker.If it affects a large number of workers they may resort is collective action such as go slow ,work stoppage strike and other allied group action.
Absenteeism
Less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to avoidable reasons.Management must be concerned with excessive absenteeism for it disrupts production and business operations.
Tardiness
This is also similar to absenteeism.But this is not due to some explainable reason such as getting children ready for school but only due to the fact that employees really do not care much for their work.This is indicated by excessive time spent in rest rooms , lingering in the parking lot before coming to work spending too much time on personal telephone calls.So ,they actually spend time at work but that there is not spent on useful and productive work.
Employee Turnover
The organizational units with the lowest average satisfaction levels tend to have the highest turnover rates. Turnover may be voluntary , which is initiated by the employees or it may be due to job dissatisfaction or other personal reason beyond control by the management.
Union Activity
The evidence for dissatisfaction is a major cause of unionization. In addition the employees feel that individually they are unable to influence changes that would result in the alimentation , of those factors that cause job dissatisfaction .Lower level of union activities is related to the level of job dissatisfaction and lower level of job dissatisfaction may result in grievances while higher level of job dissatisfaction may result in employee strikes.
Tuesday, July 27, 2010
Job Satisfaction and organizational effectiveness
Job attitudes affect organizational effectiveness to the extent that they influence turnover,absenteeism,strikes, grievances,sabotage,theft,and soon.Further more satisfied tend to live longer , exhibit better mental and physical health ,learn new tasks faster and face few accidents at work. Therefore job satisfaction is the most popular indicator for assessing organizational effectiveness.
When performance leads to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards , this in turn will lead to higher job satisfaction.
However , performance does not lead to intrinsic and extrinsic performance and job satisfaction cannot be correlated positively with each other.
Extrinsic rewards are usually less closely related to performance than intrinsic rewards because extrinsic rewards are administered by the organization and intrinsic rewards are "self administered."
When performance leads to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards , this in turn will lead to higher job satisfaction.
However , performance does not lead to intrinsic and extrinsic performance and job satisfaction cannot be correlated positively with each other.
Extrinsic rewards are usually less closely related to performance than intrinsic rewards because extrinsic rewards are administered by the organization and intrinsic rewards are "self administered."
Causes of job satisfaction
It is a specific subset of attitudes held bye members of the organization. It is an attitude they have towards their jobs or we can say their effective responses to their jobs. Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or attitude that individuals have towards their jobs. When person say that he has high job satisfaction, it means that he really likes his job, feels good about it and values his job highly. Highly satisfied workers have better physical and mental well being. On the other hand serious job dissatisfaction results in stress and tension which are usually the causes of a variety of psychological disorders.
How job satisfaction can be derived
1.Work itself-Satisfaction
The aspects of the job content can affect an employee’s work satisfaction.
The more a job involves the use of skills and talents relevant to the employee’s self. Ensure that more employees can feel that they are performing meaningful work rather than simply.
Task identify and task significance also affect the experience and meaningfulness of the work.If an employee assembles the entire finished product or if he makes an important component of the finished product, he will experience a sense meaningful.
Autonomy - When an employee has no control over work procedures, the task is challenging and performance is available needs.
2.Organizational Factors
There are some organizational factors determining the job satisfaction.
Salaries and Wages-A manor cause of pay dissatisfaction is perceived inequity.
Promotion-This indicates an employee's worth to the organization and it is highly morale boosting.
Company Policies-Organizational polices usually govern employee behaviour, and depending upon how strict or liberal the policies ,are they can create positive or negative feelings about the organization.
How job satisfaction can be derived
1.Work itself-Satisfaction
The aspects of the job content can affect an employee’s work satisfaction.
The more a job involves the use of skills and talents relevant to the employee’s self. Ensure that more employees can feel that they are performing meaningful work rather than simply.
Task identify and task significance also affect the experience and meaningfulness of the work.If an employee assembles the entire finished product or if he makes an important component of the finished product, he will experience a sense meaningful.
Autonomy - When an employee has no control over work procedures, the task is challenging and performance is available needs.
2.Organizational Factors
There are some organizational factors determining the job satisfaction.
Salaries and Wages-A manor cause of pay dissatisfaction is perceived inequity.
Promotion-This indicates an employee's worth to the organization and it is highly morale boosting.
Company Policies-Organizational polices usually govern employee behaviour, and depending upon how strict or liberal the policies ,are they can create positive or negative feelings about the organization.
Job Satisfaction
Its effects on “should be” perceptions are social comparisons with other employees, previous job characteristics and reference groups. Nobody wants to receive lower pay or less benefit than was received earlier in the same job or in a previous job. An employee will compare the beneficial outcomes received from the job with the outcomes received by other employees with similar jobs.
Third situational factor is reference group.An employee will be more satisfied if a job is endorsed by the reference group than if it is not. A good example of a reference group is the influence of a labour union on worker perception of a fair and reasonable increase in pay and benefits.In an organization one of the most important tasks for a manager is the ability to identify improper or unacceptable attitudes.Then only they can make the people realize their potentials and get them to effective participation.There are basically four step process.
1.Identify the improper attitudes
2.Determine what supports it
3.Weaken those supports
4.Tell a substitute
Third situational factor is reference group.An employee will be more satisfied if a job is endorsed by the reference group than if it is not. A good example of a reference group is the influence of a labour union on worker perception of a fair and reasonable increase in pay and benefits.In an organization one of the most important tasks for a manager is the ability to identify improper or unacceptable attitudes.Then only they can make the people realize their potentials and get them to effective participation.There are basically four step process.
1.Identify the improper attitudes
2.Determine what supports it
3.Weaken those supports
4.Tell a substitute
Attitudes
Individual behavior is very important to keep the organization climate healthy. Motivation is necessary to make the employee like and enjoy his job. If the employees are highly dissatisfied with their jobs morale would be very low and the condition would adversely affect their motivation.
A person’s attitude towards life in general would determine his attitude towards his or her job. Generally people with a pessimistic about life always complain about everything including the job. Accordingly in addition to providing a healthy work environment management must ensure that the employees is happy and has a positive outlook towards life.
Attitudes are beliefs and feelings people have about specific ideas,situations or other people.We can define attitude as the effective orientation toward a particular attitude object.
Attitudes shape the way people respond to events and other people.The attitude determine their feeling,thoughts and behaviour.
A person’s attitude towards life in general would determine his attitude towards his or her job. Generally people with a pessimistic about life always complain about everything including the job. Accordingly in addition to providing a healthy work environment management must ensure that the employees is happy and has a positive outlook towards life.
Attitudes are beliefs and feelings people have about specific ideas,situations or other people.We can define attitude as the effective orientation toward a particular attitude object.
Attitudes shape the way people respond to events and other people.The attitude determine their feeling,thoughts and behaviour.
Sunday, July 25, 2010
Attribution Theory
When we study attribution theory it can be identified as a mroe recent approach to the study of motivation at work.
Attribution is the process by which people interpret the perceived causes of behavior. Firs Heider who suggests that behavior is determined by a combination of perceived internal forces and external forces is generally recognized as the initiator of the attribution theory.
Internal forces relate to personal attributes such as abilities , skills, and amount of effort or fatigue. External forces relate to environmental factors such as organizational rules, the style of supervision and the weather.
Heider believed that both internal forces and external forces combine adaptively to determine behavior. He stressed that it is the perceived are not the actual determinants that are important in behavior. People will behave differently from the way they actually behave if they perceive internal attributes or the external attributes. It is this concept of deferential ascription that is very important for work motivation.
Attribution is the process by which people interpret the perceived causes of behavior. Firs Heider who suggests that behavior is determined by a combination of perceived internal forces and external forces is generally recognized as the initiator of the attribution theory.
Internal forces relate to personal attributes such as abilities , skills, and amount of effort or fatigue. External forces relate to environmental factors such as organizational rules, the style of supervision and the weather.
Heider believed that both internal forces and external forces combine adaptively to determine behavior. He stressed that it is the perceived are not the actual determinants that are important in behavior. People will behave differently from the way they actually behave if they perceive internal attributes or the external attributes. It is this concept of deferential ascription that is very important for work motivation.
Goal Theory
Now let's discuss the goal theory of motivation. This is also called the theory of goals stetting and is based mainly on the work of Edwin Locke.
Goal theory helps to explain both the importance of goal setting and the characteristics of goals that lead to improve performance. The basic premise of the goal theory is that people's goals or intentions play an important part in determining their behavior. A goal is defied simple as what the individual is trying to do. Locke accepts the importance of perceived value and suggests these values give rise to the experience of emotions and desires. People strive to achieve goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals guide people's responses and actions. Goals direct work behavior and performance and lead to certain consequences of feedback.
Goal theory contends that difficult goals result in higher level of performance then no goals at all or generalize goals such as a 'try hard'. The goals towards which the individual work seem to lead to improved performance, whether thee goals are set by the perosn or by the organization. The basic of goal theory have such an impact on managing people that they require elaboration.
Goal theory helps to explain both the importance of goal setting and the characteristics of goals that lead to improve performance. The basic premise of the goal theory is that people's goals or intentions play an important part in determining their behavior. A goal is defied simple as what the individual is trying to do. Locke accepts the importance of perceived value and suggests these values give rise to the experience of emotions and desires. People strive to achieve goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals guide people's responses and actions. Goals direct work behavior and performance and lead to certain consequences of feedback.
Goal theory contends that difficult goals result in higher level of performance then no goals at all or generalize goals such as a 'try hard'. The goals towards which the individual work seem to lead to improved performance, whether thee goals are set by the perosn or by the organization. The basic of goal theory have such an impact on managing people that they require elaboration.
Equity Theory
Equity theory has been around just as long as the expectancy theories of work motivation. Credit for equity theory is usually given to J. Stacy Adams, This theory argues that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity that people perceive in their work situation. In other words, equity theory focuses on people's feelings as to how fairly they have been treated when compared withe the treatment receive by others in similar positions.
Inequity occurs when a perosn perceives that the ratio if his outcomes to inputs is not equal to the ratio between the outcomes to inputs of another in a similar position.
Both the inputs and the output of a person and those of another are based upon the person's perceptions. Examples of perceived variables are age, sex, education, social status, organizational position , qualifications and how hard a person works. Outcomes consist primarily of rewards such as pay, status, promotion and intrinsic inters in the job.
Inequity occurs when a perosn perceives that the ratio if his outcomes to inputs is not equal to the ratio between the outcomes to inputs of another in a similar position.
Both the inputs and the output of a person and those of another are based upon the person's perceptions. Examples of perceived variables are age, sex, education, social status, organizational position , qualifications and how hard a person works. Outcomes consist primarily of rewards such as pay, status, promotion and intrinsic inters in the job.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Vroom is the first person to propose an expectancy theory aimed specially at work motivation. Criticizing Hertzberg's two-factor theory, he proposed this theory as an alternative theory of motivation. According to this theory, people will be motivated to do things to achieve some goals to the extent they expect that certain actions on their parts will help them to achieve the goals. He presented this theory based on three key variables.
Valence
Instrumentality, and
Expectancy
Therefore, this theory is also called the VIE theory.
Now lets see what is meant by of the above variables: The feeling about specific outcomes is termed valance. Other terms equivalent to valance used in various theories of motivation are incentive, attitude, and expected utility. Positive valance is where the person prefers achieving the outcome. to not achieving it. Negative valance is where there is performance for avoiding the outcome. Where the perosn is indifferent towards the outcome, there is zero valance.
Valence
Instrumentality, and
Expectancy
Therefore, this theory is also called the VIE theory.
Now lets see what is meant by of the above variables: The feeling about specific outcomes is termed valance. Other terms equivalent to valance used in various theories of motivation are incentive, attitude, and expected utility. Positive valance is where the person prefers achieving the outcome. to not achieving it. Negative valance is where there is performance for avoiding the outcome. Where the perosn is indifferent towards the outcome, there is zero valance.
Theories of Motivation
When we study different theories of motivation, we can see that there are many competing theories which attempt to explain the nature of motivation. These theories to a lesser or grater degree. are empirically tested and might help to explain the behavior of people in particular situations.
There is no single answer to the question what motivates employees to work well, this is mainly due to the complexity of human beings. These different theories are important to the manager. because they show that there are many motives, which influence people's behavior and performance. When we study these different theories, it will be possible to obtain some sort of a framework writing which attention to the problem of how best to motivate employees to work willingly and effectively can be directed.
There is no single answer to the question what motivates employees to work well, this is mainly due to the complexity of human beings. These different theories are important to the manager. because they show that there are many motives, which influence people's behavior and performance. When we study these different theories, it will be possible to obtain some sort of a framework writing which attention to the problem of how best to motivate employees to work willingly and effectively can be directed.
Approaches to Motivation at Work
If a manager wants to motivate his staff, first he has to identify their needs. We can get some idea bout human needs by studding some of the approaches to motivation.
Employees have various needs and expectations. These needs and expectations can be categorized in a number of ways: such as psychological and social, or intrinsic and extrinsic.
The development of different approaches to organization and management has highlilted the changing concept of motivation at work.
Employees have various needs and expectations. These needs and expectations can be categorized in a number of ways: such as psychological and social, or intrinsic and extrinsic.
The development of different approaches to organization and management has highlilted the changing concept of motivation at work.
Main Elements of Motivation
Human Motives
A number of human motives such as love, anger, desires etc. can be identified by analyzing mental activities of people. In order to activate these motives an number of preconditions have to be satisfied. Once it is done it will be practically easy to activate a motive.
Motivator
Any factor that results a motive to be activated is called a motivator. Here the suitability of each motive is important in activating motives.
Expected Behavior
This is to direct behavior in some expected directions through motives activated by the use of motivator. In a motivational program the most important point to be decided first is the expected behavior. So when leadership selects a motivator it is important to remember that it can direct the motives towards expected behavior.
A number of human motives such as love, anger, desires etc. can be identified by analyzing mental activities of people. In order to activate these motives an number of preconditions have to be satisfied. Once it is done it will be practically easy to activate a motive.
Motivator
Any factor that results a motive to be activated is called a motivator. Here the suitability of each motive is important in activating motives.
Expected Behavior
This is to direct behavior in some expected directions through motives activated by the use of motivator. In a motivational program the most important point to be decided first is the expected behavior. So when leadership selects a motivator it is important to remember that it can direct the motives towards expected behavior.
Motivational Process
What we do in a motivational process is what we allow the employees to realize their own needs while the organization engages them in some tasks to achieve organizational objectives. As the needs of the employees are also fulfilled by doing such work, they perform them satisfactorily. Normally, when the employees performs their works with satisfactory, production increases. What we can observe is that due to successful motivation an employees productivity is increased. However, while attaining organizational goals employees must be given the chance to attend their own goals also.
Another fact that emerges considering the above definitions is that the motivation is treated as a process. Three main elements can be identified in this process. They are
Human Motives
Motivator
Expected Behavior
Another fact that emerges considering the above definitions is that the motivation is treated as a process. Three main elements can be identified in this process. They are
Human Motives
Motivator
Expected Behavior
What is Motivation
First we will see what motivation is. The study of motivation is concerned basically with why people behave in a certain way. However, we can describe motivation as the direction and the persistence of action. It is concerned with why people choose particular cause of action in preference to others, and why they continue with a chosen action. Often over a long period and in the face of difficulties and problems.
From a review of the theories of motivation, Michell identifies four common characteristics which underline the definition of motivation.
1 Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon.
Every person is unique and all the major theories of motivation allow for this uniqueness to be demonstrated in one way or another.
2 Motivation is described, usually as international
Motivation is assumed to be under individual control, and behaviors such as effort expended that our influenced by motivation, are seen as choices of action.
3 Motivation is Multifaceted
The two factors of grate importance are
What gets people activated, and
The willingness of an individual to engage in a desired behavior
4 The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour
Motivation is not the behavior itself and it is not performance. Motivation is concerned with action and the internal and external forces which influence a person's choice of action.
From a review of the theories of motivation, Michell identifies four common characteristics which underline the definition of motivation.
1 Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon.
Every person is unique and all the major theories of motivation allow for this uniqueness to be demonstrated in one way or another.
2 Motivation is described, usually as international
Motivation is assumed to be under individual control, and behaviors such as effort expended that our influenced by motivation, are seen as choices of action.
3 Motivation is Multifaceted
The two factors of grate importance are
What gets people activated, and
The willingness of an individual to engage in a desired behavior
4 The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour
Motivation is not the behavior itself and it is not performance. Motivation is concerned with action and the internal and external forces which influence a person's choice of action.
Motivating Employees in Organization
Every organization has to achieve one or more objectives. The organization depends on its members for this. The Objectives of an organization can be achieved through the combined efforts of its members. The relation ship between the organization and its members is governed by what motivates them to work and the satisfactions they get form it. We should understand that the manager needs to know how to obtain the co-operation of the staff and to direct their performance to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. The manager must know how best to motivate the staff so that they would work willingly and effectively.
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