There are number of important principles in learning .
1.Extinction
Extinction takes place when there is no longer a positive consequences for the behaviour . For instance , let's take the example of meeting a deadline . If the management stops the bonus for meeting deadlines you will immediately stop your attempts to meet deadline in the future. Extinction takes place in negative reinforcement situations too. Suppose you are attempting to meet a deadline to reduce anxiety , but if your attempt does not remove the anxiety , you will not continue that behaviour . Therefore , it can be said that extinction can be experienced in both situations . This principle can be applied to situation where someone wants to stop another's behaviour , which is considered as unnecessary or undesirable .
2. Punishment
Punishment succeeds in changing or stopping present behaviour rather than acquiring new behaviour . Many learning theories do not prefer punishment as a useful 'method' because it may lead to unexpected consequences. For instance , when the management punished a worker for not working overtime in a working day , the worker might decide to leave the organization or resort to trade union action . Although punishment leads to this type of " unexpected " consequences , sometimes , it can be of limited use.
Thursday, August 5, 2010
Theories of Learning
Learning is importance in our organizational settings. The learning theories can broadly be divided into two categories , behavioural theories and cognitive theories . Behavioural theories can be divided into two sub sections , classical conditioning and operant conditioning .
Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning learning is viewed as a function of a person's response to a stimulus and his or her assessment of the degree of the satisfaction derived form the response. Further , it says that if the response to a stimulus brings positive consequences , the individual will repeat the same response towards that stimulus.He or she will be avoid his or her response and attempts a new response if the consequence is negative.
Positive Reinforcement
According to this concept , people repeat their behaviour , if the consequence of behaviour is positive in nature. If you are a supervisor or a manager in factory or any other organization , you might have forced the workers to do overtime when you had to meet a deadline. Sometimes , you would not allow workers to obtain leave without your prior approval . Can you explain why you would have behaved in this manner ? You may have behaved in this manner you knew in advance that you would be granted an additional bonus for meeting the deadline . There is a tendency to repeat the same behaviour in similar situation because of the positive consequence of your response to this stimulus . In other words , positive consequence of response increase the likelihood of repeating that behaviour in similar settings.
Negative Reinforcement
You may be unable to explain your behaviour in meeting a deadline based on positive reinforcement , even though , you might have been responding in the same manner repeatedly . Sometimes it may be due to an awareness of a negative consequence of your response . Here lies the essence of another important concept in operant conditioning , namely negative reinforcement .
The concept of negative reinforcement indicates that the removal of the negative consequence increase the likelihood that an individual will repeat the behaviour . Remember our earlier example ; 'meeting a deadline ' in this situation , suppose you knew that the management would stop your salary increment , promotion or would even punish you in other forms , if you did not meet the deadline . This knowledge would have created a great deal of anxiety in you . You can remove this anxiety by making every possible attempt to meet the deadline .
Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning learning is viewed as a function of a person's response to a stimulus and his or her assessment of the degree of the satisfaction derived form the response. Further , it says that if the response to a stimulus brings positive consequences , the individual will repeat the same response towards that stimulus.He or she will be avoid his or her response and attempts a new response if the consequence is negative.
Positive Reinforcement
According to this concept , people repeat their behaviour , if the consequence of behaviour is positive in nature. If you are a supervisor or a manager in factory or any other organization , you might have forced the workers to do overtime when you had to meet a deadline. Sometimes , you would not allow workers to obtain leave without your prior approval . Can you explain why you would have behaved in this manner ? You may have behaved in this manner you knew in advance that you would be granted an additional bonus for meeting the deadline . There is a tendency to repeat the same behaviour in similar situation because of the positive consequence of your response to this stimulus . In other words , positive consequence of response increase the likelihood of repeating that behaviour in similar settings.
Negative Reinforcement
You may be unable to explain your behaviour in meeting a deadline based on positive reinforcement , even though , you might have been responding in the same manner repeatedly . Sometimes it may be due to an awareness of a negative consequence of your response . Here lies the essence of another important concept in operant conditioning , namely negative reinforcement .
The concept of negative reinforcement indicates that the removal of the negative consequence increase the likelihood that an individual will repeat the behaviour . Remember our earlier example ; 'meeting a deadline ' in this situation , suppose you knew that the management would stop your salary increment , promotion or would even punish you in other forms , if you did not meet the deadline . This knowledge would have created a great deal of anxiety in you . You can remove this anxiety by making every possible attempt to meet the deadline .
Sunday, August 1, 2010
Importance of Learning
Learning is important to develop smooth relationships with others. Certainly , behaviour takes place only when one attempts to interact with another or a group of people , and it as pointed out earlier is the result of learning.Therefore , an individual comes to know the correct behaviour through learning and develops it in order to establish smooth relationships.Remember your childhood.Sometimes , you might have been advised or blamed by your parents or elders for your eating habits .You might have been changed your eating habits in such a way as to establish smooth relationship with them.Even today , you may be following the same practise because they help you to have smooth relationships not only with the parents , but also with others.
Another importance of learning is its ability to remove uncertainly.To understand this , we shall remember your relationship with your boss. Try to remember whether you felt easy or uneasy when you were with your boss? Did you feel uncertain about the boss 's reaction towards your ideas ,responses etc.? If you had been working with the boss for a long period , today you may recall how uncertain you felt and have frustrated you were . Actually what you helped you to remove your feeling of uncertainty? The answer is learning . Through learning you have understood suitable behaviour pattern and you have learnt to continue it to date . Certainly , learning is a commonly used instrument to reduce uncertainty.
Another importance of learning in organizational setting is its ability to reduce people's burden in decision making .Learning does this by forming habitual behaviour.
Again , remember your way of eating . Today , it has become a habit.So it is not necessary to make a decision to repeat this behaviour .In order words , you are repeating your behaviour without the help of a primary decision making process. Similarly , learning helps the managers to reduce their decision making burden , which takes a major portion of their time.
Another importance of learning is its ability to remove uncertainly.To understand this , we shall remember your relationship with your boss. Try to remember whether you felt easy or uneasy when you were with your boss? Did you feel uncertain about the boss 's reaction towards your ideas ,responses etc.? If you had been working with the boss for a long period , today you may recall how uncertain you felt and have frustrated you were . Actually what you helped you to remove your feeling of uncertainty? The answer is learning . Through learning you have understood suitable behaviour pattern and you have learnt to continue it to date . Certainly , learning is a commonly used instrument to reduce uncertainty.
Another importance of learning in organizational setting is its ability to reduce people's burden in decision making .Learning does this by forming habitual behaviour.
Again , remember your way of eating . Today , it has become a habit.So it is not necessary to make a decision to repeat this behaviour .In order words , you are repeating your behaviour without the help of a primary decision making process. Similarly , learning helps the managers to reduce their decision making burden , which takes a major portion of their time.
Friday, July 30, 2010
Learning
By observation what we have learnt in our lives ,we can understand what learning is .Learning can be defined as the process of acquiring a permanent changes in behaviour.There are two important points to be taken into account:
1. Learning is a process.
2. It makes a permanent changes in behaviour.
Learning is process.There are several steps in the learning process and these are highly interrelated.Therefore, the learner has to pass several steps before arriving at a permanent change in behaviour.There are several theories , which explain this process , and each theory looks at learning in different ways.You will be familiar with these theories and their differences later in this session.
As mentioned earlier , the most important aspect of learning is a permanent change in behaviour.If changes is temporary , it will not be considered as an outcome of the learning process.Change in behaviour should be permanent at least till the condition under which the learner has learnt exist.To understand what is meant by "permanent change in behaviour " , assume you are working in an organization where smoking is prohibited and that you have been punished for smoking.If you will nor smoke again in this organization , it can be said that learning has taken place.Because it is a permanent change in your behaviour under the conditions , which you have to work. Now you think that you get a new job in another organization where smoking is not prohibited , and you start smoking again. Can we say that the former condition does not apply?certainly not. Because the above condition is not applicable to the new organization.If you continue smoking in the new organization , it can be said that new learning has taken place.
1. Learning is a process.
2. It makes a permanent changes in behaviour.
Learning is process.There are several steps in the learning process and these are highly interrelated.Therefore, the learner has to pass several steps before arriving at a permanent change in behaviour.There are several theories , which explain this process , and each theory looks at learning in different ways.You will be familiar with these theories and their differences later in this session.
As mentioned earlier , the most important aspect of learning is a permanent change in behaviour.If changes is temporary , it will not be considered as an outcome of the learning process.Change in behaviour should be permanent at least till the condition under which the learner has learnt exist.To understand what is meant by "permanent change in behaviour " , assume you are working in an organization where smoking is prohibited and that you have been punished for smoking.If you will nor smoke again in this organization , it can be said that learning has taken place.Because it is a permanent change in your behaviour under the conditions , which you have to work. Now you think that you get a new job in another organization where smoking is not prohibited , and you start smoking again. Can we say that the former condition does not apply?certainly not. Because the above condition is not applicable to the new organization.If you continue smoking in the new organization , it can be said that new learning has taken place.
Identifying the reasons for dissatisfaction and taking action for dissatisfaction
There may be a variety of causes , such as
1.Poor supervision
2.Poor working conditions
3.Lack of job security
4.inequitable compensation
5.Lack of opportunity for advancement
Since if it is not always easy to discover causes of job dissatisfaction , managers can handle non directive counseling approach.Here the supervisor can try to understand the problems of employees by talking to them politely. He should encourage the employees to diagnose the problem and suggest some solutions . This may allow the employees to reduce tension by talking about problems and enhance self esteem by allowing the develop his or her own solutions.
The supervisor may need active plan about how to deal with the problem and should have training for handling certain kinds of psychological problems.
Taking Action for Dissatisfaction
Making changes in working conditions , supervision , compensation or job design depending on the job factor responsible for employees dissatisfaction.
Transfer employees to other jobs to archive a better match between employee characteristics and job characteristic.
An attempt to change the perception or executions of dissatisfied employees.
Precautionary actions-Whenever possible , precaution should be taken to avoid unnecessary job dissatisfaction without waiting till they surface calling for early action.
1.Poor supervision
2.Poor working conditions
3.Lack of job security
4.inequitable compensation
5.Lack of opportunity for advancement
Since if it is not always easy to discover causes of job dissatisfaction , managers can handle non directive counseling approach.Here the supervisor can try to understand the problems of employees by talking to them politely. He should encourage the employees to diagnose the problem and suggest some solutions . This may allow the employees to reduce tension by talking about problems and enhance self esteem by allowing the develop his or her own solutions.
The supervisor may need active plan about how to deal with the problem and should have training for handling certain kinds of psychological problems.
Taking Action for Dissatisfaction
Making changes in working conditions , supervision , compensation or job design depending on the job factor responsible for employees dissatisfaction.
Transfer employees to other jobs to archive a better match between employee characteristics and job characteristic.
An attempt to change the perception or executions of dissatisfied employees.
Precautionary actions-Whenever possible , precaution should be taken to avoid unnecessary job dissatisfaction without waiting till they surface calling for early action.
Thursday, July 29, 2010
Consequences of job Dissatisfaction
Job dissatisfaction produces low morale among workers and low morale at work is highly undesirable.Accordingly , managers must be constantly watchful for any signs of low morale and job dissatisfaction and take corrective action as soon as possible.Some of the indicators of low morale are ,
Employee Unrest
Under this condition the employee may not attend to hi job properly.Sometimes ,he comes so frustrated that he may take to undesirable habits as excessive drinking.So it may affect the mental health and well being of the worker.If it affects a large number of workers they may resort is collective action such as go slow ,work stoppage strike and other allied group action.
Absenteeism
Less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to avoidable reasons.Management must be concerned with excessive absenteeism for it disrupts production and business operations.
Tardiness
This is also similar to absenteeism.But this is not due to some explainable reason such as getting children ready for school but only due to the fact that employees really do not care much for their work.This is indicated by excessive time spent in rest rooms , lingering in the parking lot before coming to work spending too much time on personal telephone calls.So ,they actually spend time at work but that there is not spent on useful and productive work.
Employee Turnover
The organizational units with the lowest average satisfaction levels tend to have the highest turnover rates. Turnover may be voluntary , which is initiated by the employees or it may be due to job dissatisfaction or other personal reason beyond control by the management.
Union Activity
The evidence for dissatisfaction is a major cause of unionization. In addition the employees feel that individually they are unable to influence changes that would result in the alimentation , of those factors that cause job dissatisfaction .Lower level of union activities is related to the level of job dissatisfaction and lower level of job dissatisfaction may result in grievances while higher level of job dissatisfaction may result in employee strikes.
Employee Unrest
Under this condition the employee may not attend to hi job properly.Sometimes ,he comes so frustrated that he may take to undesirable habits as excessive drinking.So it may affect the mental health and well being of the worker.If it affects a large number of workers they may resort is collective action such as go slow ,work stoppage strike and other allied group action.
Absenteeism
Less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to avoidable reasons.Management must be concerned with excessive absenteeism for it disrupts production and business operations.
Tardiness
This is also similar to absenteeism.But this is not due to some explainable reason such as getting children ready for school but only due to the fact that employees really do not care much for their work.This is indicated by excessive time spent in rest rooms , lingering in the parking lot before coming to work spending too much time on personal telephone calls.So ,they actually spend time at work but that there is not spent on useful and productive work.
Employee Turnover
The organizational units with the lowest average satisfaction levels tend to have the highest turnover rates. Turnover may be voluntary , which is initiated by the employees or it may be due to job dissatisfaction or other personal reason beyond control by the management.
Union Activity
The evidence for dissatisfaction is a major cause of unionization. In addition the employees feel that individually they are unable to influence changes that would result in the alimentation , of those factors that cause job dissatisfaction .Lower level of union activities is related to the level of job dissatisfaction and lower level of job dissatisfaction may result in grievances while higher level of job dissatisfaction may result in employee strikes.
Tuesday, July 27, 2010
Job Satisfaction and organizational effectiveness
Job attitudes affect organizational effectiveness to the extent that they influence turnover,absenteeism,strikes, grievances,sabotage,theft,and soon.Further more satisfied tend to live longer , exhibit better mental and physical health ,learn new tasks faster and face few accidents at work. Therefore job satisfaction is the most popular indicator for assessing organizational effectiveness.
When performance leads to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards , this in turn will lead to higher job satisfaction.
However , performance does not lead to intrinsic and extrinsic performance and job satisfaction cannot be correlated positively with each other.
Extrinsic rewards are usually less closely related to performance than intrinsic rewards because extrinsic rewards are administered by the organization and intrinsic rewards are "self administered."
When performance leads to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards , this in turn will lead to higher job satisfaction.
However , performance does not lead to intrinsic and extrinsic performance and job satisfaction cannot be correlated positively with each other.
Extrinsic rewards are usually less closely related to performance than intrinsic rewards because extrinsic rewards are administered by the organization and intrinsic rewards are "self administered."
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